1.1 Ordination and pursuit of learning

Như Thanh – known by her Dharma name Như Thanh, secular name Nguyễn Thị Thao, and pen name Diệu Tánh – was born on 8 February 1911, in Tăng Nhơn Phú village, Thủ Đức district, into a family of ten siblings. Her father, Nguyễn Minh Giác, served as a district magistrate, and her mother, Đỗ Thị Gần, was a devoted homemaker. In her early years, she received basic instruction before transitioning to a French colonial education curriculum.

In 1932, at the age of twenty-one, she became ordained as a nun (śramaneri, novice nun) under the guidance of Most Venerable Pháp Ấn at Phước Tường Temple in Thủ Đức. She later undertook advanced studies at Viên Giác Temple in Bến Tre and studied Buddhist scriptures under Master Khánh Thuyên at Thiên Phước Temple. By 1935, she was entrusted with managing Hội Sơn Temple in Long Bình commune, Thủ Đức district. In 1938, Như Thanh travelled to Huế with fellow nun Diệu Hường to deepen her understanding of Buddhist teachings, studying key texts such as the Surangama Sutra (Lăng Nghiêm Trực Chỉ) and the Prajñāpāramitā Sutra (Bát Nhã), under the tutelage of Most Venerable Mật Hiển, who recognized her exceptional intellect and praised her outstanding capabilities. In 1939, she continued her research in Hanoi, focusing on the Vinaya Pitaka (monastic discipline), receiving full bhikṣuṇī ordination prior to this study. In Hanoi, Như Thanh dedicated herself to mastering two foundational Vinaya texts: Commentary on the Four-Part Bhikṣuṇī Law (Luật Tứ Phần Tỳ Kheo Ni Lược Ký) under Most Venerable Tâm An, abbot of Quốc Temple in Hưng Yên province, and Exposition of the Bhikṣuṇī Law (Luật Tỳ Kheo Ni Sao) under Most Venerable Phan Trung Thứ, abbot of Bằng Sở Temple and editor-in-chief of Đuốc Tuệ, the journal of the Northern Buddhist Association (Hội Phật giáo Bắc kỳ) (1935–1945). After completing her studies, she embarked on a pilgrimage to Buddhist sacred sites across Northern Vietnam. By late 1941, she returned to Southern Vietnam, pausing in Bình Định province to study the Lankavatara Sutra (Lăng Già Tâm Ấn) for five months under Most Venerable Phước Huệ at Thập Tháp Temple.

1.2 Religious activities

Upon returning to Southern Vietnam in early 1942, Như Thanh established a Vinaya class for Buddhist nuns. That year, she served as the Zen Master (Thiền chủ) and delivered Dharma teachings to over eighty nuns during a summer retreat at Kim Sơn Temple in Phú Nhuận, organized by Diệu Tấn, and conducted a three-month course on the Commentary on the Four-Part Bhikṣuṇī Law (Luật Tứ Phần Tỳ Kheo Ni Lược Ký) at Hội Sơn Temple. In 1943, she resumed studies at Phước Tường Temple, exploring the Diamond Sutra (Kim Cương Chư Gia) under Most Venerable Thích Pháp Ấn. In 1944, she inaugurated a summer retreat at Hội Sơn Temple, again teaching the same text.

In 1945, Nguyễn Kỳ Sắc, a district magistrate, and his wife invited her to become abbess at Huê Lâm Temple, where she oversaw extensive renovations to support nuns’ studies and pratice. Over time, Huê Lâm Temple evolved into a key centre for the nuns’ community, also serving as a hub for charitable and social initiatives.

A notable achievement came in 1947 with the founding of the Buddhist Academy for Nuns (Phật học Ni viện) at Huê Lâm Temple. She also inaugurated the annual summer retreat (an cư kiết hạ), providing a dedicated space for nuns to deepen their practice and studies. In 1952, she established Kiều Đàm Primary School at the temple, offering free education to support the cultural enrichment of nuns and to aid underprivileged children with a strong desire to learn, making the first instance of nuns founding a secular school and paving the way for further engagement in education and social work.

In 1956, she undertook extensive travels across nunneries throughout the provinces of Southern Vietnam, tirelessly advocating for the unification of the Buddhist nuns’ community. On 6–7 October 1956, nuns from across the region convened at Huê Lâm Temple, where the Southern Vietnam Buddhist Nuns’ Sangha (Ni Bộ Nam Việt) was formally established. A key outcome of this historic assembly was the election of a thirty-member administrative board, with Bhikṣuṇī Như Thanh serving as chairperson (Tổ đình Huê Lâm 1957: 46–47). The board operated with its own regulations, an independent administrative structure, and was initially headquartered at Huê Lâm Temple (Tổ đình Huê Lâm 1999b: 16). From this point onward, the nuns of Southern Vietnam gained a unified and organized sangha. Later in 1956, Như Thanh, along with the administrative board, assumed responsibility for managing Dược Sư Temple, which subsequently became the headquarters of the Southern Vietnam Buddhist Nuns’ Sangha. In 1957, she led a fundraising campaign to build Từ Nghiêm Temple, completed in 1962, which later became the headquarters of the Southern Vietnam Buddhist Nuns’ Sangha. Under her leadership, the Southern Vietnam Buddhist Nuns’ Sangha established a Buddhist Academy at Từ Nghiêm Temple, dedicated to the training and development of future generations of Buddhist nuns.

In 1972, she was appointed as Head of the Mahāyāna Buddhist Nuns’ Sangha of Southern Vietnam (Vụ trưởng Ni Bộ Bắc Tông), convening a Nuns’ Congress at Từ Nghiêm Temple to review activities and plan development ‘strengthening unity among the nuns, reviewing charitable and Buddhist activities, and reorganizing and expanding the operations of the Ni Bộ’ (Huyền Huệ 2003: 13). After Vietnam’s reunification in 1975, she continued to reside at Huê Lâm Temple, dedicating herself to Buddhist studies, scripture translation, and the construction of Buddhist facilities until her peaceful passing on 13 March 1999.

2.1 Major intellectual contributions

Throughout her nearly ninety years of life, Như Thanh produced an extensive body of works, including original writings and translations, many of which focus on Buddhist teachings and reflect her profound mastery of Buddhist studies. Her intellectual output, particularly her sutra commentaries and systematic doctrinal expositions, paralleled broader trends in East Asian Buddhist modernization during the mid-twentieth century. Figures such as Taixu in China and Yinshun in Taiwan were simultaneously developing similar approaches to making Buddhist philosophy accessible to modern practitioners while maintaining doctrinal rigour (Welch 1968; Jones 1999). Her distinctive contribution, shaped by the unique challenges of wartime Vietnamese Buddhism, lay in combining this modernist approach with institution building and community care. Among her notable contributions are Essentials of the Prajñāpāramitā (Bát Nhã cương yếu, 1989a [2 vols]), Yogācāra Studies (Duy Thức học, 1991 [4 vols]), and A Concise Explanation of the Avataṃsaka Sūtra (Lược giải Kinh Hoa Nghiêm, 1989b). Notably, compared to contemporaries like Diệu Tịnh (1910–1942) and Diệu Không (1905–1997), Như Thanh stands out as the only nun to author interpretative works on Buddhist scriptures and doctrines, offering valuable insights into her scholarly depth and foundational Buddhist thought, which underscore her unique contributions to Vietnamese Buddhism.

Essentials of the Prajñāpāramitā, published in 1989 across two volumes with seven chapters, was designed to guide practitioners in understanding and applying the spirit of Prajñā teachings in daily life, aiming to cultivate wisdom and enlightenment. The author underscores the central role of Prajñā wisdom (Trí huệ Bát Nhã) in contemplating conditioned and unconditioned phenomena, overcoming ignorance, and promoting tranquility and stability. The Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra is presented as a foundational Buddhist text, providing a robust basis for authentic Dharma practice. The seven chapters cover key topics, including the origins, text, and core doctrines of the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras, as well as the practice and realization of Prajñāpāramitā, the Prajñā Dharma Centre, the Deep Practice of Prajñā, and the biographies of enlightened sages such as Subhūti and Śāriputra. This structure bridges theoretical knowledge and practical application, supporting practitioners’ pursuit of enlightenment.

In Essentials of the Prajñāpāramitā, Như Thanh demonstrates a harmonious integration of theory and practice, encouraging practitioners to embody Prajñā teachings for wisdom and enlightenment. She emphasized Prajñā wisdom (Trí huệ Bát Nhã) as a guiding light that dispels ignorance, transcends attachments, and reveals the true nature of phenomena through the contemplation of emptiness (śūnyatā). She noted: ‘The Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra is an extraordinary and priceless repository of Buddhist teachings, unmatched in its vastness and profound depth’ (Như Thanh 1989a: 355 [vol. 1]). Describing Prajñā as ‘the mother of all Buddhas’ and ‘the guide that leads us forward on the path to Buddhahood’ (Như Thanh 1989a: 379 [vol. 1]), she highlighted its transformative power through fundamental wisdom (Căn Bản Trí) and subsequent wisdom (Hậu Đắc Trí), clarifying the relationship between Ultimate Truth and Conventional Truth, and guiding practitioners toward ‘True Emptiness and Wondrous Existence’ (Chân Không Diệu Hữu). Practically, she outlined a pathway including ‘Practising and Realizing Prajñā’ (Tu chứng Bát Nhã), ‘The Prajñā Dharma Centre’ (Đạo tràng Bát Nhã) and ‘The Deep Practice of Prajñā’ (Hành thâm Bát Nhã). She stressed the necessity of ‘authentic practice and realization’, asserting that ‘only through authentic practice and realization can one attain the spiritual resilience and wisdom needed to serve as a pillar of the true Dharma’, emphasizing personal insight (tâm đắc) for ‘unity of speech and action as the cornerstone of practice Prajñā’ (Như Thanh 1989a: 7 [vol. 2]). The Prajñā Dharma Centre was conceptualized in two dimensions: the ‘with characteristics’ (hữu tướng) centre, a tangible space organized by enlightened teachers for collective practice, and the ‘without characteristics’ (vô tướng) centre, an inner state of tranquility and purity, free from external conditions. Both aim to foster wisdom and liberation, with the latter serving as the ultimate destination where practitioners merge with ‘True Emptiness and Wondrous Existence’ (Chân không diệu hữu).

She wrote,

[…] students as well as practitioners have the means to establish an exemplary Dharma center within the idealistic aspirations of their own minds. This Dharma center transcends the confines of monasteries or physical locations, residing instead in the spirit, willpower, and capability of those practitioners who are resolute and have a clear purpose. To study and practice Prajñā is a shared endeavor among all members who, through self-awareness, self-realization, self-determination, and self-discipline, acquire the benefits necessary for advancing on their individual paths toward the liberation of the mind. (Như Thanh 1989a: 266 [vol. 2])

The ‘Deep Practice of Prajñā’ (Hành Thâm Bát Nhã) represents the most advanced stage, requiring practitioners to use wisdom to contemplate the ‘Gate of Birth and Death’ (Sanh Diệt Môn) for impermanence and direct their mind toward the ‘Gate of Suchness’ (Chơn Như Môn) to realize ultimate truth. Attaining ‘Unified Suchness of Mind and Its Sense Fields’ (Tâm Cảnh Nhứt Như), liberates practitioners from birth and death, achieving perfect wisdom. The ‘Deep Practice of Prajñā’ emphasizes unwavering, continuous practice in tandem with introspection and illumination of the mind, ultimately leading to the state of ‘non-attainment’ (vô sở đắc) – a condition free from attachment and suffering. Through the integration of profound philosophical insight and clear practical methods, the nun’s teachings illuminate a path for practitioners to not only comprehend but also embody the essence of Prajñā, ultimately realizing the supreme goal of enlightenment.

The four-volume Yogācāra Studies (Duy Thức Học, 1991) integrates philosophical depth with practical guidance, reflecting Như Thanh’s personal imprint. Drawing on major treatises such as the Treatise on the Completion of Consciousness-Only (Cheng Wei shi Lun, Thành Duy Thức Luận) – and The Gateway to Understanding the Hundred Dharmas (Bách Pháp Minh Môn Luận), she systematically explained concepts like ‘Name’ (Danh), ‘Form’ (Tướng), ‘Substance’ (Thể), ‘Function’ (Dụng), and ‘Transformations of Consciousness’ (Tâm Biến) making the Consciousness-Only school accessible. Volume four particularly emphasizes the practical dimension of the Consciousness-Only school (Duy Thức Tông) in the process of cultivation and realization. This stage requires practitioners to move beyond theoretical understanding (Name, Form, Substance, Function) and actively apply these principles in practice, transforming their consciousness to achieve liberation. Như Thanh clearly asserts that realization demands practitioners to establish a strong aspiration (Phát Tâm Lập Nguyện) and unwavering determination (Quyết Chí Thực Hành), which serve as the foundation for developing key attributes such as mental concentration (Định Tâm) and spiritual strength (Định Lực). One of the core ideas presented in this volume is the concept of Self-Cultivation and Self-Realization (Tự Tu, Tự Chứng), emphasizing that practitioners must take full responsibility for their own journey of inner transformation. Như Thanh explains that this process cannot rely entirely on external factors but requires direct experiential insight within one’s own consciousness. She underscores the importance of cultivating virtuous deeds (Công Đức Nhơn Lành) and reaping positive outcomes (Quả Tốt), which are the fruits of transforming one’s mind.

As she wrote:

Resolutely commit to channeling your study and practice by establishing a firm aspiration (Phát Tâm Lập Nguyện) and following the teachings of the Buddha and the patriarchs through authentic practice and realization (Thật tu, Thật nghiệm). By practicing and realizing the Dharma in accordance with proper methods, practitioners cultivate virtuous causes (nhơn lành) and naturally attain favorable results (quả tốt). Practitioners should recognize that ‘virtuous causes and favorable results’ arise from within our own consciousness, not from external influences. Thus, from time immemorial, Buddhas and Bodhisattvas have demonstrated through their determination the profound truth of the statement: ‘All is created by the mind; all phenomena transform through consciousness’ (Nhứt thiết duy tâm tạo, Vạn pháp do thức biến). Since all arises from the mind and transforms through consciousness, practitioners must rely on the merit of ‘establishing an aspiration’ as the foundation and ‘resolute practice’ as the key. When one develops inner stability (Định tâm) and spiritual strength (Định lực), these become the miraculous tools that lead to self-cultivation, self-realization, practicing the Buddha’s path, attaining the Buddha’s mind, and realizing the Buddha’s enlightenment. (Như Thanh 1991: 374)

A Concise Explanation of the Avataṃsaka Sūtra (Lược Giải Kinh Hoa Nghiêm) offers insights into the Bodhisattva path, through Sudhana (Thiện Tài Đồng Tử). Here, Như Thanh emphasizes that Sudhana’s journey toward enlightenment – progressing from initial awakening, breaking through attachment to the self, entering the Dharma realm, and attaining realization – serves as a powerful symbol of diligence, courage in overcoming attachments, and the relentless pursuit of wisdom from virtuous teachers (kalyāṇamitra). She wrote, ‘The model of Sudhana’s quest for the Dharma is a noble image for Mahāyāna aspirants. Here, we find all the essential conditions for ordinary beings to ascend into the realm of sacred wisdom’ (Như Thanh 1989b: 321 [vol. 2A]). Through this journey, Như Thanh emphasizes the ideal of serving all sentient beings, viewing the Bodhicitta (Bồ Đề Tâm) as the foundation of Buddhist practice. The ultimate goal is not only individual enlightenment but also the benefit of all sentient beings.

What is most significant and holds ultimate meaning is that Sudhana knew how to generate the supreme Bodhicitta. For Mahāyāna Buddhist practitioners, the Bodhicitta is the lifeblood, the root, the seed, and the center from which all virtuous deeds, merits, and wisdom arise. Generating Bodhicitta purifies the stains of desire, anger, and deluded attachment to the self. The Bodhicitta has given birth to and nurtured countless Bodhisattvas, it is the mother of the Four Immeasurable Minds (Tứ Vô Lượng Tâm), the medicine that cures all afflictions, the light that dispels the darkness of unwholesome actions and evil practices. Simply put, generating Bodhicitta is to use vows and practices to awaken the Buddha-seed within each of us, allowing it to sprout, grow into the Bodhi tree, and bear flowers and fruit that benefit all sentient beings. (Như Thanh 1989b: 322 [vol. 2A])

The author also emphasizes that Bodhicitta is inherently present within all sentient beings, but the sprouting and growth of the seed of enlightenment into the fruition of Buddhahood depend on dedicated practice, favourable conditions, and long-term cultivation.

This Buddha-seed exists within everyone, but if it is not discovered and nurtured, it will never grow into a beautiful tree bearing sweet fruits. Generating the Bodhicitta does not happen by chance; rather, it requires long-term preparation and persistent effort over countless lifetimes to achieve fulfillment. (Như Thanh 1989b: 322 [vol. 2A])

Volume 2B focuses on meditation practice as indispensable methods for uncovering one’s true nature, eliminating delusions, and attaining ‘the Supreme Wondrous Fruition of Bodhi’. Như Thanh highlights meditation as a direct path, guiding practitioners to realize that ‘the mind itself is Buddha’ (Tức Tâm Tức Phật) (Như Thanh 1989b: 6 [vol. 2B]). She further encourages emulating the Mahāyāna virtues embodied by Bodhisattvas Mañjuśrī and Samantabhadra, cultivating both wisdom and compassion as integral to the spiritual journey.

Virtue and Discipline Combined (Giới đức kiêm ưu, 1973) compiles four lectures on Vinaya and Buddhist practice, emphasizing the indispensable role of the Vinaya (giới luật) as a foundation for both individual spiritual growth and the stability of the Buddhist community. The four lectures were delivered on separate occasions, each addressing a critical aspect of Buddhist training and cultivation. The first lecture ‘The Discipline of the Sangha’ emphasizes the pivotal role of the Vinaya (giới luật) in monastic life, presenting four key aspects: the Vinaya as the foundation of ethical conduct (Phạm hạnh), the importance of patience and diligence (Nhẫn nhục và Tinh tấn), the interplay of concentration and wisdom (Định và Tuệ), and gratitude and repayment (Tri ân và Báo ân) as core principles. The lecture underscores the Vinaya as the core of monastic life, serving not only as a guide for personal purity but also as a framework for building a harmonious and disciplined community. The Vinaya is described as the basis of morality and virtue, preventing physical and mental misconduct, helping monastics avoid unwholesome actions, and guiding them toward a life of purity. For instance, the Sutra on Peace (An Lạc Kinh) likens the Vinaya to ‘a bridge to liberation’, highlighting its crucial role in spiritual cultivation.

Như Thanh highlights patience (kṣānti, Nhẫn nhục) and diligence (vīrya, Tinh tấn) as essential virtues for overcoming challenges in monastic life. She illustrates this point with the story of Bodhidharma, who exemplified unwavering perseverance in his practice, demonstrating that resilience and effort are indispensable in cultivating moral and spiritual excellence. Concentration (samādhi, Định) and wisdom (prajñā, Tuệ) are identified as two inseparable qualities necessary for inner development and self-realization. The lecture explains that concentration stabilizes the mind, providing the foundation for wisdom to arise, while wisdom in turn directs concentration toward meaningful insight. Without concentration, wisdom cannot effectively overcome internal chaos, highlighting the need for these two elements to work in harmony within Buddhist practice. The lecture concludes with an emphasis on gratitude (tri ân) and repayment (báo ân) as fundamental principles for monastics to serve society. These values are not merely moral obligations but also key motivators for contributing to the wellbeing of the Buddhist community and society at large. Through gratitude and repayment, monastics embody the Dharma’s compassionate spirit, inspiring others and strengthening the ethical fabric of the sangha. In this lecture, Như Thanh emphasizes the Vinaya as the cornerstone of monastic discipline and spiritual cultivation. By fostering ethical conduct, patience, diligence, concentration, and gratitude, the Vinaya serves as both a guide for personal transformation and a foundation for the collective stability of the sangha. This vision underscores the enduring relevance of the Vinaya in creating a harmonious Buddhist community and promoting the values of Buddhism within society.

‘Cultivating Monastic Virtues’ (Bồi dưỡng tăng cách) focuses on the cultivation of monastic character (Tăng cách) as a foundational effort to build a strong and cohesive sangha (practitioner community) capable of meeting the demands of modern Buddhist development. It outlines a structured process for nurturing monastic character, encompassing five stages: preparation before ordination, studying and observing the Vinaya, practising the Dharma, engaging in societal service, and ultimately embodying the ideal of a monastic life. For example, monks and nuns are advised to diligently study and strictly adhere to the śrāmaṇera (novice) precepts for a period of at least ten years before advancing to full ordination as bhikṣu or bhikṣuṇī. This period serves to ensure both moral maturity and the competence required for effective Dharma propagation. The lecture further underscores the vital role of faith in the Triple Gem (Tam Bảo, Triratna: Buddha, Dharma, sangha), presenting it as the central pillar that sustains the stability and cohesion of the sangha. This belief is grounded not only in adherence to the precepts but also in their demonstration through practice and the propagation of the Dharma:

To achieve the qualities of a true monastic character (Tăng cách), one must have unwavering faith in the Triple Gem, uphold the precepts, cultivate resolve and virtue, and generate Bodhicitta to serve the Dharma. This involves establishing a determined aspiration for the ‘Supreme Path’ and placing complete trust in the Triple Gem. Only then can the qualities of a true monastic be cultivated. (Như Thanh 1973: 29)

Additionally, attaining a perfect monastic character (Tăng cách) requires diligent practice of the ‘six perfections’ (lục độ).

‘Essential Qualities of a Buddhist’ (Vài nét chính yếu của người Phật tử) emphasizes the importance of steadfastness and determination (lập chí) in pursuing noble goals such as serving sentient beings and attaining enlightenment. Far from being a mere personal quality, determination serves as a cornerstone for building a strong and resilient Buddhist community. It requires unwavering perseverance, a sense of responsibility, and the capacity to overcome challenges. In addition to determination, the lecture highlights the ability to regulate and control the mind (chế tâm) as a fundamental factor in maintaining moral discipline and preventing unwholesome actions. By cultivating this ability (chế tâm), practitioners can focus steadfastly on the path of Dharma, avoiding the distractions of desires and the errors that arise from an undisciplined mind. The concept of tâm thuật, or the art of virtuous and harmonious living, also plays a central role in the lecture. Practitioners are encouraged to cultivate this art (tâm thuật) not only as a means to achieve personal tranquility but also to contribute to the greater good by spreading positive values within society. Finally, the lecture underscores the essential practice of self-reflection and repentance (sám hối) as tools for correcting mistakes, upholding the Vinaya, and fostering character development. Repentance is presented not only as a pathway to individual improvement but also as a practice that strengthens the cohesion and moral integrity of the sangha. Through these principles, the lecture provides a clear roadmap for lay Buddhists and monastics to pursue proper spiritual cultivation both individually and communally. At the same time, it conveys a profound message of harmony between spiritual practice and worldly engagement, aligning the values of Buddhism with the demands of modern society.

‘Opening Lecture for Lay Class at Tu Nghiem Temple’ (Bài giảng ngày khai đại giới đàn tại chùa Từ Nghiêm) delves into several key topics. The section on the ‘Ordination Platform’ (Giới đàn) emphasizes the significance of receiving and upholding precepts, presenting them as the foundation for cultivating purity in body, speech, and mind, ultimately leading to liberation. The Vinaya is divided into two aspects: ‘Practical Application’ (Pháp Hành) and ‘Theoretical Study’ (Pháp Học), combining theoretical knowledge with practical implementation to enhance personal character and foster integration into the monastic community. The section on the ‘Three Essential Conditions’ (Tam chủng tử duyên) explains three types of mind necessary for generating Bodhicitta: the Straight Mind (Trực tâm), representing sincerity and integrity; the Deep Mind (Thâm tâm), reflecting dedication to spiritual practice; and the Great Compassionate Mind (Đại bi tâm), embodying empathy and love for sentient beings. Complementing this, the ‘Four Conditions for Generating Bodhicitta’ (Tứ duyên phát Bồ-đề tâm) outlines the roles of observation, hearing the Dharma, protecting the Dharma, and cultivating the aspiration to liberate all beings in developing the Bodhicitta. The section on the ‘Five Types of Preceptor’ (5 bậc A-xà-lê) highlights the critical role of preceptors in preserving the Vinaya, maintaining the sangha’s purity, and guiding future generations of practitioners. Meanwhile, the ‘Five Types of Monastic Communities’ (Ngũ Chủng Tăng) classifies forms of the sangha, emphasizing the ‘Ultimate Sangha’ (Thắng Nghĩa Tăng) as the ideal model while encouraging other forms to engage in self-reflection to preserve the image of Buddhism. The section on the ‘Five Purities for Monastics’ (Năm Đức Thanh Tịnh của Người Xuất Gia) describes essential qualities: Generating the Mind of Renunciation, Destroying Strange Forms and Beautiful Appearances, Permanently Severing Attachment to the Body, Destroying False Livelihood, Seeking Only the Mahāyāna for attaining purity, helping monastics live in accordance with the Vinaya and exemplify Buddhist values to others. Additionally, the ‘Causes and Conditions for the Buddha to Establish the Vinaya’ (Nhân duyên Phật chế lập giới luật) explains that the Buddha established the Vinaya to ensure the sangha’s purity and harmony, protect practitioners, and guide them on the path to liberation. Together, these teachings reaffirm the Vinaya as the ethical foundation that strengthens the Buddhist community and extends its values of discipline and spiritual cultivation to society at large.

The work Virtue and Discipline Combined reflects Như Thanh’s Buddhist ethics, which centres on three key pillars: the Vinaya (monastic discipline), the cultivation of moral virtues, and community service. These principles aim to establish an ethical, harmonious Buddhist community that actively contributes to societal development. Through her lectures in this work, Như Thanh elucidates the integration of spiritual practice with worldly engagement, emphasizing the Vinaya not only as a foundation for individual morality but also as a driving force for building a pure and resilient Buddhist sangha. This perspective underscores the transformative power of Buddhist ethics in fostering both personal and communal growth, ultimately aligning spiritual values with the progress of modern society.

The Dual Cultivation of Meditation and Pure Land (Thiền Tịnh Song Tu), authored by Như Thanh and compiled by Buddhist disciple Diệu Nga (Như Thanh 2001), is a seminal work published by Nhà xuất bản Tôn giáo. This concise volume, divided into a theoretical section (nearly 100 pages) and practical guides (about fifteen pages), reflects Như Thanh’s vision to harmonize Meditation (Thiền) and Pure Land (Tịnh Độ) for modern practitioners, especially in the degenerate age of the Dharma. The book’s structure includes ‘Differences and Similarities’, ‘Mutual Support’, and ‘Principles and Methods’ for dual cultivation, alongside procedures for entering and exiting meditation and body massage techniques. Rooted in the Threefold Training of Precepts (Giới), Concentration (Định), and Wisdom (Tuệ), this practice integrates Thiền’s self-reliance – calming the mind through self-inquiry – with Tịnh Độ’s other-power – reliance on the Buddha’s compassionate assistance rather than one’s own efforts alone, invoking Amitabha’s forty-eight vows via reciting ‘Nam Mô A Di Đà Phật’. Faith (Tín), Aspiration (Nguyện), and Practice (Hành) complement Meditation’s discipline, leading to the insight ‘mind, Buddha, and sentient beings are not different’. Practical methods include seated meditation with numbered recitations (one to ten, then reverse) to achieve One-Mindedness, prostration with bell synchronization, walking meditation, bell-ringing, and deep stillness – all enhancing concentration and purifying afflictions like greed and anger. This purifying stream, as Như Thanh teaches, ensures present tranquility and rebirth in the Pure Land, fulfilling her goal of universal liberation.

In conclusion, the transformative power of this combined practice is succinctly captured by Như Thanh’s teaching, as articulated in the central teachings of the text:

One recitation of the Buddha’s name, when there is no longer a reciter, is Meditation. One recitation of the Buddha’s name, encompassing all six senses, is Pure Land. When Meditation and Pure Land are perfectly integrated, one transcends the ordinary and attains the sacred. (Như Thanh 2001: 102)

The practice of dual cultivation of Meditation and Pure Land is widely regarded as an unparalleled efficacy in guiding practitioners toward enlightenment and liberation.

2.2 Factors shaping Như Thanh’s intellectual development

Several factors contributed to Như Thanh’s profound mastery of Buddhist teachings. First, her family background provided a strong foundation, as discussed above (section 1.1). Second, her educational foundation, which combined traditional Confucian classical education with a French colonial curriculum, equipped her with both classical knowledge and modern analytical skills. Third, her spiritual aspirations and philosophical outlook upon ordination demonstrated remarkable maturity and wisdom. She was ordained in 1932 at the age of twenty-one – which was for her a time of personal and spiritual maturity when she had clearly defined her life principles and ideals. Her poem ‘Living’ (Như Thanh 1997b: 25) allows us to understand her philosophy of life and grasp the determination that motivated her decision to enter monastic life. Composed just two years before her passing in 1999, this poem represents the culmination of over six decades of monastic practice and spiritual maturation, reflecting the deep wisdom gained through a lifetime dedicated to Buddhist teachings. The poem poses profound questions about the meaning of existence, inviting readers to contemplate the essence of a meaningful and virtuous life. The author asserts that living is not merely about survival or pursuing material values but about living with ideals, maintaining purity, and embodying moral integrity. The poem emphasizes core values such as honesty, non-attachment, generosity, and the ability to engage with the world serenely. It extols a life balanced between wisdom and emotion, lived boldly without being troubled by trivial matters. The work evokes a spirit of living fully, with clear self-awareness, always striving for purity and collective joy. Through metaphors such as moonlight, clarity, and grandeur, the poem conveys the message that to live meaningfully is to live with an open heart, harmonizing with life while maintaining inner freedom and sincerity. It presents a call to a noble living, transcending superficiality and limitations, embracing a life of simplicity, integrity, and profound connection with others (Như Thanh 1997b: 25).

Finally, with a noble aspiration and commitment to an exemplary way of life, upon her ordination Như Thanh dedicated herself to seeking esteemed teachers and immersing herself in Dharma study. She was privileged to learn under prominent and venerable masters of her time, including Most Venerable Thích Pháp Ấn (1888–1946), Most Venerable Thích Mật Hiển (1907–1992, Huế, Central Vietnam), Most Venerable Thích Tâm An (1892–1982, Hưng Yên, Northern Vietnam), and National Master Thích Phước Huệ (1875–1963, Bình Định, Central Vietnam). Most Venerable Thích Pháp Ấn, her primary teacher, served as a distinguished advisor of the Giác Hoàng Summer Retreat in 1933 and as a consultant to the Lưỡng Xuyên Buddhist School in 1935 and 1937 (Duy Tâm 1936; Lưỡng Xuyên Phật học 1939). The Lưỡng Xuyên Buddhist School was an institution established within the broader context of the Buddhist revival movement in Southern Vietnam and was closely associated with Most Venerable Khánh Hoà, a pioneering figure of this movement. Most Venerable Thích Mật Hiển was lauded for

his skillful integration of Meditation, Pure Land, and Esoteric Buddhism into a comprehensive and meticulously practiced spiritual path. As a leader, he exemplified a profound sense of responsibility and unrelenting dedication to Buddhist causes. He lived a life of simplicity and humility, with an unwavering commitment to the Dharma and the welfare of the nation. (Thích Đồng Bổn 2017: 861 [vol. 1])

Most Venerable Thích Tâm An was renowned as a master of the Vinaya Pitaka (the Monastic Discipline) (Lợi Lê 2024). Meanwhile, National Master Thích Phước Huệ was regarded as

a towering figure of Vietnamese Buddhism, whose influence extended beyond Central Vietnam to Southern Vietnam as well. He was a pivotal lecturer at Buddhist universities in Huế and Bình Định, both prior to and following the inception of the Buddhist revival movement in Central Vietnam. (Thích Đồng Bổn 2017: 158 [vol. 1])

These Venerable Masters had a significant influence on Như Thanh’s path of practice and Dharma propagation. It underscores the vital role of the teacher in imparting knowledge and shaping character in the student, while likewise affirming that the accomplishments of a great disciple serve as a testament to the wisdom, dedication, and profound influence of their teacher.

3.1 Organizational leadership and Vinaya authority within the bhikṣuṇī community

3.2 Social welfare and community engagement

It is hypothesized that the tragic context of the war-torn South (1954–1975), where countless children were left orphaned, fostered diverse approaches to engaged Buddhism in Vietnam, with Như Thanh’s charitable initiatives emerging as a nun-led response. This unfolded within the broader Buddhist revival and engaged Buddhism movements of the mid-twentieth century, a period marked by pioneering efforts of Thích Nhất Hạnh and his associates in central and southern Vietnam, who, from 1965, developed socially engaged practices through initiatives like the School of Youth for Social Service (Thích Nhất Hạnh 1967; Queen and King 1996: 321–363). In this challenging context, the charitable and social activities initiated by Như Thanh carried significant humanitarian importance and embodied the engaged spirit of Buddhism. Under her guidance, the social welfare efforts of the bhikṣuṇī sangha not only alleviated suffering but also set a shining example of the Buddhist principle of practising the Dharma to serve the world. Như Thanh was the first among the bhikṣuṇī sangha to establish charitable institutions and self-sustaining economic initiatives. Most notably, the Kiều Đàm school system stood out as a pioneering model of philanthropic education. Beginning with the Kiều Đàm Elementary School (1952) at Huê Lâm Pagoda, this system expanded significantly to include free kindergartens and secondary schools, serving impoverished yet diligent children. Huê Lâm Pagoda became not only a centre for education but also a hub for charitable activities, offering herbal and Western medicine clinics, vocational classes for sewing and knitting, and more. It became an exemplary model for bhikṣuṇī-run pagodas across the country to emulate.

In her role as the Supreme Advisor and later as the Head of the Bhikṣuṇī Division of the Mahāyāna Buddhist Nuns’ Sangha of Southern Vietnam (Ni bộ Bắc tông), Như Thanh provided strategic guidance for the bhikṣuṇī sangha to expand their charitable and social welfare activities. These efforts included the development of an extensive network of schools, orphanages, and nurseries. According to the 1972 report presented at the Bhikṣuṇī Division’s General Assembly, the organization supported a total of seventy-one kindergartens and primary schools with over 12,300 students, forty-one nurseries housing and educating over 7,000 children, and six orphanages sheltering more than 1,100 children. Notable examples include the Tây Lộc Orphanage in Huế, which cared for 365 children, and the Quảng Ngãi Orphanage, which supported 300 children (Giáo hội Phật giáo Việt Nam thống nhất 1972: 14). Additionally, bhikṣuṇī-led temples established medical clinics and organized relief efforts in war-torn areas, significantly contributing to stabilizing the lives of impoverished communities.

These activities not only alleviated the suffering caused by war but also affirmed the role of the bhikṣuṇī sangha in serving society. The compassionate spirit of Như Thanh left a distinctive mark, highlighting the charitable and social welfare focus within the broader Buddhist mission of Vietnam’s bhikṣuṇī sangha. Her efforts became a symbol of loving-kindness amidst an era of devastation and grief. The impact of Như Thanh’s vision and dedication is vividly reflected in the breadth of charitable and educational initiatives spearheaded by the bhikṣuṇī sangha under her leadership. The following statistics underscore the extensive scope and remarkable achievements of these efforts, highlighting the establishment of schools, orphanages, and healthcare facilities that served thousands of individuals during a time of immense societal need (Tổ đình Huê Lâm 1999b: 305).

The charitable and social welfare establishments initiated by Như Thanh were diverse, encompassing schools, orphanages, vocational training classes, and medical clinics. These efforts reflect her comprehensive approach to addressing various aspects of life, including education, healthcare, and livelihood support, meeting the diverse needs of the community. The Kiều Đàm school system began in 1952 with the establishment of the Kiều Đàm Primary School at Huê Lâm Pagoda and later expanded into a network of educational institutions, including secondary schools, kindergartens, and orphanages. This pioneering initiative by the bhikṣuṇī sangha brought education to impoverished and orphaned children, particularly in the war-stricken context of Southern Vietnam. The traditional and Western medicine clinics, as well as acupuncture services at Huê Lâm Pagoda, operated efficiently, serving thousands of patients each month. These initiatives not only provided vital healthcare support for impoverished communities but also showcased Như Thanh’s organizational abilities and vision for addressing local health needs. Vocational training classes, such as knitting and tailoring courses at Huê Lâm Pagoda, offered opportunities for additional income and skill development, particularly benefitting women and vulnerable groups. Several of these establishments operated over extended periods, such as the traditional medicine clinic at Huê Lâm Pagoda, which served the community for twenty-eight years, and schools that remained active for many years. These sustained efforts underscore the effective management and lasting positive impact on the community. Beyond meeting immediate needs, these charitable and social welfare establishments embodied humanistic values, fostering trust and connection between the temple and society.

In summary, the statistical overview of Như Thanh’s charitable and social welfare establishments serves as a clear testament to the engaged spirit of Buddhism, effectively addressing community needs amidst the challenging and tumultuous context of Southern Vietnam. This model also stands as a pioneering example, laying the foundation for the future charitable activities of the bhikṣuṇī sangha in Vietnam.

To sustain and expand her charitable and social welfare establishments, Như Thanh did not solely rely on donations from devotees and benefactors but also established a robust system of self-sustaining economic enterprises to ensure long-term funding (see Appendix, Table 4). Her strategic approach is vividly reflected in the comprehensive system of self-sustaining facilities initiated under her guidance. The accompanying table provides a detailed overview of these facilities, highlighting their diversity and operational scope, from vegetarian restaurants and soy sauce production to incense manufacturing and tailoring workshops. These enterprises not only generated stable revenue streams to support charitable activities but also exemplified her innovative and sustainable vision for Buddhist social engagement.

These enterprises were efficiently organized and operated, ranging from scripture distribution offices at Huê Lâm and Hải Vân to vegetarian eateries such as Tịnh Tâm Trai and Thanh Tâm Trai. Notably, the White Lotus Soy Sauce production facility and incense manufacturing centre became stable sources of revenue to support charitable initiatives. The tailoring workshops at Huê Lâm and other locations not only provided employment but also contributed to funding schools and orphanages. These self-sustaining establishments not only ensured financial independence but also demonstrated Như Thanh’s exceptional organizational skills and strategic vision, enabling her charitable activities to have a profound and enduring impact during a challenging period in society.

4.1 Tangible legacy

Như Thanh left behind a precious legacy in the establishment of Buddhist nunneries, contributing significantly to the development and shaping of the bhikṣuṇī sangha in Vietnamese Buddhism. Throughout her nearly seventy years of Dharma practice, she participated in or made significant contributions to the construction of nearly ten temples, each bearing her profound imprint. The most prominent of these is Huê Lâm Temple, which served not only as the ancestral temple of the Ni bộ Nam Việt but also as the venue for the historic establishment of the bhikṣuṇī sangha in 1956. Under her vision and organizational leadership, Huê Lâm Temple was reconstructed and expanded multiple times, including the addition of the Ni residence, Kiều Đàm Primary and Secondary School, and a new main hall. This temple became not only a place of study and practice but also a symbol of unity and progress for the bhikṣuṇī sangha.

Another major project was Từ Nghiêm Temple, which Như Thanh took over in 1957 to serve as the new headquarters of the Southern Vietnam Buddhist Nuns’ Sangha. Under her direction and support, the temple was transformed into an extensive architectural complex, including lecture halls, living quarters, and functional areas. From 1962 onwards, Từ Nghiêm Temple hosted regional and national bhikṣuṇī congresses, becoming a central hub for Buddhist activities among the bhikṣuṇī sangha.

Additionally, temples such as Hội Sơn, Phổ Đà, Hải Vân, and Huê Lâm II bear witness to Như Thanh’s substantial contributions in creating Buddhist infrastructure, promoting education, and serving the community. These establishments reflect not only her devotion to serving the Dharma but also her strategic vision and unwavering dedication to the advancement of Vietnamese Buddhism.

4.2 Intangible legacy